The Military and Civilian Applications of Geopolymers
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3849/aimt.01845Keywords:
application, geopolymer, 3D printing, portland cement , militaryAbstract
In this article, various geopolymer applications in the context of both existing and potential future military applications are summarized. Geopolymers are a type of alkaline activated concrete binder with many advantageous properties over ordinary Portland cement based materials. Geopolymers are first compared to ordinary Portland cement based materials in regards to their mechanical properties, thermal properties, chemical resistance and CO2 emissions during manufacturing. History of geopolymer applications and research is also discussed. Then, various geopolymer applications are summarized, including their use as a passive fire protection, material for general construction, “ink”for 3D printing. These types of applications are also discussed in the context of existing and potential military applications of geopolymers, including their use by U.S. armed forces and U.S. military research. Superior geopolymer resistance to explosions is also presented.
References
DAVIDOVITS, J. Geopolymers and Geopolymeric Materials. Journal of Thermal Analysis, 1989, 35, pp. 429-441. DOI 10.1007/BF01904446.
SINGLA, R., M. SENNA, T. MISHRA, T.C. ALEX and S. KUMAR. High Strength Metakaolin/Epoxy Hybrid Geopolymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Mechanical Properties. Applied Clay Science, 2022, 221, 106459. DOI 10.1016/j.clay.2022.106459.
BLANCO, I., G. POGGETTO, B. MORRONE, E. TRANQUILLO, F. BARRINO and M. CATAURO. Fly Ash Filled Geopolymers: Preparation and Thermal Study. Macromolecular Symposia, 2020, 389(1), 1900052. DOI 10.1002/masy.201900052.
ZHANG, D., H. ZHU, Q. WU, T. YANG, Z. YIN and L. TIAN. Investigation of the Hydrophobicity and Microstructure of Fly Ash-Slag Geopolymer Modified by Polydimethylsiloxane. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 369, 130540. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130540.
EL ALOUANI, M., S. ALEHYEN, M. EL ACHOURI, A. HAJJAJI, C. ENNAWAOUI and M. TAIBI. Influence of the Nature and Rate of Alkaline Activator on the Physicochemical Properties of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2020, 2020, 8880906. DOI 10.1155/2020/8880906.
LIEW, Y.-M., C.-Y. HEAH, A.B. MOHD MUSTAFA and H. KAMARUDIN. Structure and Properties of Clay-Based Geopolymer Cements: A Review. Progress in Materials Science, 2016, 83, pp. 595-629. DOI 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2016.08.002.
SINGH, N.B., M. KUMAR and S. RAI. Geopolymer Cement and Concrete: Properties. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2020, 29(3), pp. 743-748. DOI 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.513.
LI, X., F. RAO, S. SONG, M.A. CORONA-ARROYO, N. ORTIZ-LARA and E.A. AGUILAR-REYES. Effects of Aggregates on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Geothermal Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers. Results in Physics, 2018, 11, pp. 267-273. DOI 10.1016/j.rinp.2018.09.018.
KHATER, H.M. Effect of Silica Fume on the Characterization of the Geopolymer Materials. International Journal of Advanced Structural Engineering, 2013, 5, 12. DOI 10.1186/2008-6695-5-12.
ADAK, D., M. SARKAR, M. MAITI, A. TAMANG, S. MANDAL and B. CHATTOPADHYAY. Anti-Microbial Efficiency of Nano Silver–Silica Modified Geopolymer Mortar for Eco-Friendly Green Construction Technology. RSC Advances, 2015, 79, pp. 64037-64045. DOI 10.1039/C5RA12776A.
ŁACH, M., M. HEBDOWSKA-KRUPA, D. MIERZWIŃSKI and K. KORNIEJENKO. Mechanical Properties of Geopolymers Reinforced with Carbon and Aramid Long Fibers. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Montevideo: IOP Publishing, 2019, 706, 012011. DOI 10.1088/1757-899X/706/1/012011.
LE CHI, H., P. LOUDA, S. LE VAN, L. VOLESKY, V. KOVACIC and T. BAKALOVA. Composite Performance Evaluation of Basalt Textile-Reinforced Geopolymer Mortar. Fibers, 2019, 7(7), 63. DOI 10.3390/fib7070063.
Ordinary Portland Cement - Constituents, Properties, Types and Uses [online]. [viewed 2023-08-03] Available from: https://theconstructor.org/concrete/ ordinary-portland-cement/23181/
GAILITIS, R., K KORNIEJENKO, A. SPRINCE and L. PAKRASTINS. Comparison of the Long-Term Properties of Foamed Concrete and Geopolymer Concrete in Compression. In: 4th Polish Congress of Mechanics and the 23rd International Conference on Computer Methods in Mechanics. Krakow: AIP Publishing, 2020, 2239(1). DOI 10.1063/5.0007787.
ATIŞ, C.D., E.B. GÖRÜR, O. KARAHAN, C. BILIM, S. İLKENTAPAR and E. LUGA. Very High Strength (120 MPa) Class F Fly Ash Geopolymer Mortar Activated at Different NaOH Amount, Heat Curing Temperature and Heat Curing Duration. Construction and Building Materials, 2015, 96, pp. 673-678. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.089.
ABBAS, A.G., F. AZIZ, K. ABDAN, N. MOHD NASIR and G. HUSEIEN. State-of-the-Art Review on Fibre-Reinforced Geopolymer Composites. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 330, 127187. DOI 10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2022.127187.
GAILITIS, R., A. SPRINCE, L. PAKRASTINS, P. BAZAN and K. KORNIEJENKO. Plain and PVA Fibre-Reinforced Geopolymer Compact Tension Specimen Critical Area Surface Composition Assessment. In: Environment. Technologies. Resources. Proceedings of the 13th International Scientific and Practical Conference on Environment, Technology and Resources 2021. Rezekne: Curran Associates, 2021, 3, pp. 72-77. DOI 10.17770/etr2021vol3.6569.
WANG, F., X. SUN, Z. TAO and Z. PAN. Effect of Silica Fume on Compressive Strength of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Made of Calcium Aluminate Cement/Fly Ash Based Geopolymer. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 62, 105398. DOI 10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105398.
LUHAR, S., D. NICOLAIDE and I. LUHAR. Fire Resistance Behaviour of Geopolymer Concrete: An Overview. Buildings, 2021, 11(3), 82. DOI 10.3390/buildings11030082.
LIU, C. and J. CHEN. High Temperature Degradation Mechanism of Concrete with Plastering Layer. Materials, 2022, 15(2), 398. DOI 10.3390/ma15020398.
ROVNANIK, P and K. ŠAFRÁNKOVÁ. Thermal Behaviour of Metakaolin/Fly Ash Geopolymers with Chamotte Aggregate. Materials, 2016, 9(7), 535. DOI 10.3390/ma9070535.
KOKSAL, F., K. COŞAR, M. DENER, A. BENLI and O. GENCEL. Insulating and Fire-Resistance Performance of Calcium Aluminate Cement Based Lightweight Mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 362, 129759. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129759.
High Alumina Cement [online]. [viewed 2023-08-15] Available from: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/High_alumina_cement
SU, L., N. VU VAN, A. SHARKO, R. ERCOLI, N.T XIEM, H. TRAN, P. ŁO´S, K. BUCZKOWSKA, S. MITURA and T. ŠPIREK. Fire Resistance of Geopolymer Foams Layered on Polystyrene Boards. Polymers, 2022, 14(10). DOI 10.3390/polym14101945.
ŁACH, M., D. MIERZWIŃSKI, K. KORNIEJENKO and J. MIKUŁA. Geopolymer Foam as a Passive Fire Protection. In: Fire and Environmental Safety Engineering 2018. Lviv: EDP Sciences, 2018, 247, 00031. DOI 10.1051/matecconf/201824700031.
COLANGELO, F., I. FARINA, M. TRAVAGLIONI, C. SALZANO, R. CIOFFI and A. PETRILLO. Eco-Efficient Industrial Waste Recycling for the Manufacturing of Fibre Reinforced Innovative Geopolymer Mortars: Integrated Waste Management and Green Product Development through LCA. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 312, 127777. DOI 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127777.
Application of Waste Product from Combined Production of Electricity and Heat (in Czech) [Final Report]. 2021, CZ.01.1.02/0.0/0.0/20_360/0023834.
DEB, P.S., P. NATH and P.K. SARKER. The Effects of Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag Blending with Fly Ash and Activator Content on the Workability and Strength Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Cured at Ambient Temperature. Materials & Design (1980-2015), 2014, 62, pp. 32-39. DOIm 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.05.001.
PALOMO, A., P. MONTEIRO, P. MARTAUZ, V. BILEK and A. FERNANDEZ-JIMENEZ. Hybrid Binders: A Journey from the Past to a Sustainable Future (Opus Caementicium Futurum). Cement and Concrete Research, 2019, 124, 105829. DOI 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105829.
GLUKHOVSKIĬ, V.D. Soil Silicates (in Russian). Kyiv: Gos. Izdvo Litry Po Stroitelʹstvu I Arkhitekture, 1959.
NAWAZ, M., A. HEITOR and M. SIVAKUMAR. Geopolymers in Construction - Recent Developments. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 260, 120472. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120472.
Geopolymer Precast Floor Panels: Sustainable Concrete for Australia’s Global Change Institute [online]. 2014 [viewed 2023-08-04]. Available from: https://www.structuremag.org/?p=1347
EFC® Solutions [online]. [viewed 2023-08-03]. Available from: https://earthfriendlyconcrete.com/solutions/
RAHMAN, S.K. and R. AL-AMERI. Marine Geopolymer Concrete – A Hybrid Curable Self-Compacting Sustainable Concrete for Marine Applications. Applied Sciences, 2022, 12(6), 3116. DOI 10.3390/app12063116.
MALLONE, P., C. RANDALL and T. KIRKPATRICK. Potential Applications of Alkali-Activated Alumino-Silicate Binders in Military Operations [Report] [online]. 1985 [viewed 2023-08-02] Available from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA166196.pdf
DAVIDOVITS, J. and J.L SAWYER. Early High-Strength Mineral Polymer [online]. 1985 [viewed 2023-08-06]. Available from: https://patents. google.com/patent/US4509985A/en
DAVIDOVITS, J. 30 Years of Successes and Failures in Geopolymer Applications. Market Trends and Potential Breakthroughs [online]. In: Geopolymer 2002 Conference. Melbourne, 2002 [viewed 2023-08-06]. Available from: https://www.geopolymer.org/wp-content/uploads/30YearsGEOP.pdf
ANDERTON, G.L. Construction Productivity Advancement Research (CPAR) Program [Report] [online]. 1992 [viewed 2023-08-05]. Available from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA262780
AL-CHAAR, G.K., P.B. STYNOSKI, M.M. LANDI and M.L. BANKO. Method of Construction for Geopolymer Soil Stabilized Platforms [Technical Report] [online]. 2017 [viewed 2023-08-01]. Available from: https://erdclibrary.erdc.dren.mil/jspui/handle/11681/26029
WILSON, C.A., J.S MATHIS, L. CLARK and A. DELGADO-CONNOR. Geopolymer Nanoceramic Mortar Liner System for Corrosion Protection and Rehabilitation of Stormwater Piping: Final Report on Project F14-AR05 [Technical Report] [online]. 2017 [viewed 2023-08-09]. Available from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1049243
MANAENKOV, A. Geopolymer Based Composite as a New Material in Underground Building Industry [Thesis] [online]. Prague, 2020 [viewed 2023-08-09]. Available from: https://dspace.cvut.cz/bitstream/handle/10467/94203/F1-D-2021-Manaenkov-Alexey-Alexey%20Manaenkov%20Disertation.pdf
AMRAN, M., S-S. HUANG, A.M ONAIZI, N. MAKUL, H.S. ABDELGADER and T. OZBAKKALOGLU. Recent Trends in Ultra-High Performance Concrete
(UHPC): Current Status, Challenges, and Future Prospects. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 352, 129029. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2022.129029.
KATHIRVEL, P. and S. SREEKUMARAN. Sustainable Development of Ultra High Performance Concrete Using Geopolymer Technology. Journal of Building Engineering, 2021, 39, 102267. DOI 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102267.
LE CHI, H. Study of Fire Resistance Barriers Using Composites Based Geopolymer [Thesis]. Liberec: Technical university of Liberec, 2015.
Fire Research: Target Areas [online]. [viewed 2023-08-10]. Available from: https://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/Research/TargetAreas.
ROESE-KOERNER, I., F MARTAUS, G. MIRRA, J. BACHMANN and M. LIEBISCH. New Materials for Fire Protection in Cabin Environment – Test Results Second Batch [online]. 2018 [viewed 2023-08-10]. Available from: https://www.futuresky-safety.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/FSS_P7_DLR_ D7.8_V2.0.pdf
ZIEJEWSKA, C., J. MARCZYK, K. KORNIEJENKO, S. BEDNARZ, P. SROCZYK, M. ŁACH, J. MIKUŁA, B. FIGIELA, M. SZECHYŃSKA-HEBDA and M. HEBDA. 3D Printing of Concrete-Geopolymer Hybrids. Materials, 2022, 15(8), 2819. DOI 10.3390/ma15082819.
ELSAYED, H., F. GOBBIN, M. PICICCO, A. ITALIANO and P. COLOMBO. Additive Manufacturing of Inorganic Components Using a Geopolymer and Binder Jetting. Additive Manufacturing, 2022, 56, 102909. DOI 10.1016/ j.addma.2022.102909.
RENCA - Sustainable Geopolymer Company [online]. [viewed 2023-07-31]. Available online: https://www.renca.org Introduction to the Interim Draft of the National Ordinary High Water Mark
(OHWM) Manual [online]. 2023 [viewed 2023-08-05]. Available from: https://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/Fact-Sheets/Fact-Sheet-Article-View/Article/2639052/g2crm/
Defense Dept. Building Largest 3D-Printed Structures in Western Hemisphere[online]. 2022 [viewed 2023-08-02]. Available from: https://www.defense.gov/ News/News-Stories/Article/Article/2989152/
AL-CHAAR, G.K., A. BRANDVOLD, A. KOZYCH and W. MENDOZA. 4D Printing Structures for Extreme Temperatures Using Metakaolin Based Geopolymers [online]. 2023 [viewed 2023-08-01]. Available from: https://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/Publication-Notices/Article/3352761/4dprinting-structures-for-extreme-temperatures-using-metakaolin-based-geopolym/
MENG, Q., C. WU, Y. SU, J. LI, J. LIU and J. PANG. Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Blast Resistant Capacity of High Performance Geopolymer Concrete Panels. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2019, 171, pp. 9-19, DOI 10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.04.010.
Radiation: Electromagnetic Fields [online]. 2016 [viewed 2023-08-05]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/radiationelectromagnetic-fields
NOVAIS, R.M., M. SAELI, A.P.F CAETANO, M.P SEABRA, J.A LABRINCHA, K.P SURENDRAN and R.C PULLAR, Pyrolysed Cork-Geopolymer Composites: A Novel and Sustainable EMI Shielding Building Material. Construction and Building Materials, 2019, 229, 116930. DOI 10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2019.116930.
SVOBODOVÁ, L., T. BAKALOVA, V. TUNÁKOVÁ, H. LE CHI, M. RYVOLOVÁ, A. KAVÁNOVÁ and L. VOLESKÝ. Geopolymers with Carbon or Basalt Grids and Incorporated MGO Nanoparticles for Shielding Electromagnetic
Radiation. In: Proceedings 11th International Conference on Nanomaterials - Research & Application. Brno: TANGER Ltd., 2019, pp. 73-79. DOI 10.37904/nanocon.2019.8548.
How EMI Shielding Helps the Military [online]. [viewed 2023-08-08]. Available from: https://www.deepcoat.com/how-emi-shielding-helps-the-military/
GASHTI, M.F, S.H.G. MOUSAVINEJAD and S. J. KHALEGHI. Evaluation of Gamma and Neutron Radiation Shielding Properties of the GGBFS Based Geopolymer Concrete. Construction and Building Material, 2023, 367, 130308. DOI 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130308.
BUCZKOWSKA, K.E.; P. LOS, P. LOUDA and V. RŮŽEK. Geopolymer Composite for Radiation Shielding CZ36099U1 [online]. 2022 [viewed 2023-08-10]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/CZ36099U1
Downloads
Published
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Advances in Military Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
Users can use, reuse and build upon the material published in the journal for any purpose, even commercially.
